Figure skating is a sporting event where individuals, mixed couples,
or groups perform spins, jumps, and other "moves" on the ice, often to music.
There are international competitions for figure skating, such as the World
Championships, and figure skating is also an official event in the Winter
Olympics. In languages other than English, figure skating is usually referred to
by a name that translates as "artistic skating".
The sport is closely associated with show business, such as "spectaculars"
where performers skate unjudged, and the crowd pleasing routines at the end of
competition held at many tournaments. Many skaters both during and after their
competitive careers also skate in ice-skating exhibitions or shows. Many shows
are run by individual clubs to show off their members' accomplishments.
Equipment
Figure skates differ from hockey skates most visibly in having a set of
large, jagged teeth called toe picks (also known as "toe rakes") on the
front of the blade. The toe picks are used primarily in jumping and should not
be used for stroking or spins. Toe pick designs have become quite elaborate in
recent years and sometimes include additional teeth on the sides of the blade.
The figure skating blade is curved from front to back with a radius of about
2 meters. Recently, parabolic figure skating blades have been designed to
increase skaters' stability on the ice. The blade is also hollow ground;
a groove on the bottom of the blade creates two distinct edges, inside and
outside. In figure skating it is always desirable to skate on only one edge of
the blade, and never on both at the same time (which is referred to as a flat).
The apparently effortless power and glide across the ice exhibited by elite
figure skaters fundamentally derives from efficient use of the edges to generate
speed.
Figure skating boots are traditionally made by hand from many layers of
leather. In recent years, boots made of synthetic materials with heat-moldable
linings have become popular with many skaters because they combine strength with
lighter weight than leather boots, and are easier to "break in". The latest
development in boot technology is a boot that is hinged at the ankle to provide
lateral support while allowing more flexibility. Blades are mounted to the sole
and heel of the boot with screws.
Typically, high-level figure skaters will be professionally fitted for their
boots at a reputable skate shop in their area.
Other equipment used by skaters includes pads called butt pads or crash pads
that are inserted into the pants or stockings and provide relief from the pain
of hard falls, especially when learning new jumps. Another piece of equipment is
the guard, which is put on the blade when the skater must walk in his or her
skates when not on the ice. The guard protects the blade from dirt or material
on the ground that may dull the blade. Soft blade covers called soakers are used
to absorb condensation and protect the blades from rust when the skates are not
being worn.
Clothing worn while ice skating includes dresses and skirts for women. For
competition, these pieces of clothing can be heavily beaded or trimmed, and cost
up to thousands of dollars if designed by a top level dress-maker. For practice,
figure skaters of both sexes usually wear leggings or tight fitting, flexible
pants. Tights are also worn with dresses and skirts and underneath leggings for
extra warmth and aesthetic qualities. Competition outfits for skaters of both
sexes, especially in ice dance, are often theatrical and revealing, in spite of
repeated attempts to ban clothing that gives the impression of "excessive
nudity" or that is otherwise inappropriate for athletic competition.
Some rinks use harness systems to help skaters learn jumps faster in a
controlled manner. The rink installs a heavy-duty cable that is securely
attached to two walls of the rink. A set of pulleys ride on the cable. The
skater wears a vest or belt that has a cable or rope attached to it. That
cable/rope is threaded through the movable pulley on the cable above. The coach
holds the other end of the cable and lifts the skater by pulling the cable/rope.
The skater can then practice the jump, with the coach assisting with the
completion.
Disciplines
International competitions in figure skating comprise the following
disciplines:
- Singles competition for men and women (who are referred to as "ladies" in
the official terminology of the sport). Singles skaters must perform jumps,
spins, and step sequences in their programs.
- Pairs consisting of one lady and one man. Pairs perform singles elements in
unison as well as pair-specific elements such as throw jumps, in which the male
skater 'throws' the female into a jump; lifts, in which the female is held above
the male's head in a number of different grips and positions; pair spins, in
which both skaters spin together about a common axis; and death spirals, where
the man in a pivot swings the lady around him on a deep edge in a position low
to the ice.
- Ice dancing, again for couples consisting of a lady and man skating
together. Ice dance differs from pairs in focusing on difficult steps performed
in close dance holds exactly to the beat of the music rather than acrobatic
jumps, throws, and lifts. In addition to free dances to music of their own
choice, ice dancers must perform compulsory dances with fixed steps and patterns
to standard ballroom dance rhythms. In spite of the lack of obvious "tricks",
ice dance is considered by many to be the most technical and detailed of the
skating disciplines.
- Synchronized skating, for mixed-gender groups of up to 20 skaters. This
discipline resembles a group form of ice dance with additional emphasis on
precise formations of the group as a whole and complex transitions between
formations.
Other disciplines of skating include:
- Compulsory figures, in which skaters use their blades to draw circles,
figure 8s, and similar shapes in ice, and are judged on the accuracy and clarity
of the figures and the cleanness and exact placement of the various turns on the
circles. Figures were formerly included as a component of singles competitions
but were eliminated from those events in 1990. Today figures are rarely taught
or performed. The United States was the last country to retain a separate test
and competitive structure for compulsory figures, but the last national-level
figures championship was held in 1999.
- Moves in the field (known in the UK as field moves), which have replaced
compulsory figures as a discipline to teach the same turns and edge skills in
the context of fluid free skating movements instead of being constrained to
artificially precise circles.
- Fours, a discipline that is to pairs as pairs is to singles. A fours team
consists of two men and two women who perform singles and pairs elements in
unison as well as unique elements that involve all four skaters.
- Theatre on ice, also known as ballet on ice in Europe. This is a form of
group skating that is less structured than synchronized skating and allows the
use of props and theatrical costuming.
- Adagio skating, a form of pair skating most commonly seen in ice shows,
where the skaters perform many spectacular acrobatic lifts but few or none of
the singles elements which competitive pairs must perform.
Jumps
Jumps involve the skater leaping into the air and rotating rapidly to land
after completing one or more rotations. There are many types of jumps,
identified by the way the skater takes off and lands, as well as by the number
of rotations that are completed.
Most skaters rotate all their jumps in the counterclockwise direction. Some
prefer to rotate clockwise, and a very small number of skaters can perform jumps
in both directions. For clarity, all jumps will be described for the
counterclockwise skater.
There are six major jumps in figure skating. All six are landed on a right back
outside edge (with counterclockwise rotation, for single and multi-revolution
jumps), but have different takeoffs, by which they may be distinguished. The two
categories of jumps are toe jumps and edge jumps. (Descriptions below are for
counterclockwise rotation skaters; reverse for clockwise rotation jumps.)
Toe jumps are launched by tapping the toe pick of one skate into the ice, and
include (in order of difficulty from easiest to hardest):
- Toe loops take off from the back outside edge of the right foot and are
launched by the left toe pick (toe walleys are similar, but take off from the
back inside edge of the right foot);
- Flips, which take off from the back inside edge of the left foot and are
launched by the right toe pick;
- Lutzes, which take off from the back outside edge of the left foot and are
launched by the right toe pick.
Edge jumps use no toe assist, and include:
- Waltzes, which take off from a left forward outside edge and land on a back
right outside edge. This jump is similar to an axel, but it is only a half
rotation.
- Salchows, which take off from a left back inside edge. Swinging the opposite
leg around helps launch the jump;
- Loops take off from a right back outside edge and land on the same edge;
- Axels, which are the only jump to take off from a forward edge (the left
outside edge). Because they take off from a forward edge, they include one-half
extra rotations and are usually considered the hardest jump of the six. The
similar jump with only half a rotation is called a waltz jump and is typically
the first jump a skater learns.
The number of rotations performed in the air for each jump determines whether
the jump is a single, double, triple, or quad. Most elite male skaters perform
triples and quads as their main jumps, while most elite female skaters perform
all the triples except the axel, which is usually double. Only a handful of
female skaters have successfully landed triple axels in competition.
One variation, known as the Tano, is far more difficult than a normal
jump because the jumper keeps one arm raised above his or her head while
jumping. The name is derived from Brian Boitano, who made a triple lutz with an
upraised arm his signature jump.
There are also a number of other jumps which are usually performed only as
single jumps and are typically used as transitional movements or highlights in
step sequences. These include:
- Half Loops, which take off from a right back outside edge like a loop, but
land on the left back inside edge;
- Walley jumps, which takes off from a right back inside edge. It is debatably
more difficult than the axel, because the flow of the inside edge is clockwise
and opposes the counterclockwise rotation in the air;
- Split jumps, which are half-rotation jumps based on a flip, lutz, or loop
entrance;
- Inside axels, one-and-a-half-rotation jumps that take off from the right
forward inside edge;
- One-foot axels, one-and-a-half-rotation jumps with a regular axel takeoff
from the left forward outside edge, but landing on the left back inside edge.
In addition to jumps performed singly, jumps may also be performed in
combination or in sequence.
For a set of jumps to be considered a combination, each jump must take off
from the landing edge of the previous jump, with no steps, turns, or change of
edge in between jumps. This limits all jumps except the first to toe loops and
loops (which take off from the right back outside edge on which the basic six
jumps are landed). In order to use other jumps on the back end of a combination,
connecting jumps such as a half loop (which is actually a full rotation, but
lands on a left back inside edge) can be used, enabling the skater to put a
salchow or flip at the end of the combination.
Jump sequences are sets of jumps which may involve steps or changes of edge
between the jumps.
Spins
There are also several types of spins, identified by the position of the
arms, legs, and angle of the back. Spins are done on the round part of the
blade, just behind the toe pick. The round part of the blade is called the ball
of the foot. (Contrary to popular thought, spins are NOT done on the toe picks
-- they're mainly for jumps!)
Spins may be performed on either foot. For skaters who rotate in a
counterclockwise direction, a spin on the left foot is called a forward
spin, while a spin on the right foot is called a back spin.
- Upright spin (or corkscrew spin), in which a skater maintains a vertical
position, often with the free leg crossed in front of the skating leg. A fast
spin in this position is known as a scratch spin.
- Camel spin (also known as a parallel spin), in which the skater assumes an
"airplane" position (or spiral position) with the free leg extended behind at
hip level, parallel to the ice surface.
- Sit spin, in which the knee of the skating leg bent very low, and the free
leg stretched out in front, parallel to the ice.
- Crossfoot spins, an upright spin in which the free leg is crossed behind the
skating foot.
- Layback spins, in which the skater bends backward gracefully and positions
arms artistically.
- Biellmann spins, where the skater pulls free leg from behind her (or very
rarely him), over the head. She (or he) usually holds onto the blade of the
skate. (Obviously, this requires extreme flexibility.) Named after Denise
Biellmann, 1981 ladies' world champion from Switzerland.
- Doughnut spins, a variation of a back camel spin where the skater pulls the
blade of the skate of the free leg backward with one or both arms while arching
the back to create a horizontal circular shape with the body.
- Other spins where the skater extends the free leg in front or to the side in
a split or near-split position.
Flying spins are spins that are initiated with a jump. These include
the flying camel, flying sit spin, death drop, and butterfly spin. Usually, they
go from a forward spin, to a back spin.
Steps and turns
Step sequences are a required element in competition programs. They involve a
combination of turns, steps, hops and edge changes, performed in a straight line
down the ice, in a circle, or in an S shape (serpentine step sequence).
The various turns which skaters can incorporate into step sequences include:
- Three turns, so called because the blade turns into the curve of the edge or
lobe to leave a tracing resembling the numeral "3".
- Bracket turns, in which the blade is turned counter to the curve of the
lobe, making a tracing resembling a bracket ("}").
- Rockers and counters, one-foot turns that involve a change of lobe as well
as of direction.
- Mohawks, the two-foot equivalents of three turns and brackets.
- Choctaws, the two-foot equivalents of rockers and counters.
Spiral sequences are also required (in women's skating only), and involve
lifting the free leg above the hip to a position equivalent of the arabesque in
ballet, or the scale in gymnastics. Spirals can be performed while skating
forwards or backwards, and are distinguished by the edge of the blade used and
the foot they are skated on.
Other freeskating movements which can be incorporated into step sequences or
used as connecting elements include lunges and spread eagles. An Ina Bauer is
similar to a spread eagle performed with one knee bent and typically an arched
back. Hydroblading refers to a deep edge performed with the body as low as
possible to the ice in a near-horizontal position.
Competition format and scoring
The International Skating Union - ISU is the governing body for international
competitions. The ISU oversees the World Championships and the figure skating
events at the Winter Olympic Games.
In singles and pairs figure skating competition, competitors must perform two
routines, the "short program", in which the skater must complete a list of
required elements consisting of jumps, spins and steps; and the "free skating",
in which the skaters have slightly more choice of elements. Ice dancing
competitions usually consist of three phases: one or more "compulsory dances";
an "original dance" to a ballroom rhythm that is designated annually; and a
"free dance" to music of the skaters' own choice.
Skating was formerly judged for "technical merit" (in the free skating),
"required elements" (in the short program), and "presentation" (in both
programs). The marks for each program ran from 0.0 to 6.0 and were used to
determine a preference ranking, or "ordinal", separately for each judge; the
judges' preferences were then combined to determine placements for each skater
in each program. The placements for the two programs were then combined, with
the free skating placement weighted more heavily than the short program. The
lowest scoring individual (based on the sum of the weighted placements) was
declared the winner.
In 2004, the ISU adopted a new judging system called the New Judging System
(NJS) or Code of Points which will be mandatory at all international
competitions in 2006, including the 2006 Winter Olympics. This judging system
fundamentally changes the criteria by which skaters are judged. Each individual
element within a program is worth a predetermined number of points and the
elements are judged based on their execution; while the former presentation mark
has been replaced by various "program components" scores which are assigned
subjectively on a scale from 0.0 to 10.0. As of this writing, there is a great
deal of uncertainty related to the implementation, merits, and value of the new
judging system. Some of the primary criticisms are that the judges' marks are
anonymous, that the system is still prone to human error, that it relies heavily
on technology that has no inherit "checks and balances" built into the system,
and that it tightly constrains the content of skaters' programs and reduces
creativity.
Many fans of more traditional sports find the judging procedures
incomprehensible, and the universal practice of judges attending competitors'
practice sessions dubious in the extreme. It is also generally believed that
judges often judge the competitors performance over many competitions rather
than just the performance in the competition at hand - competitors must "pay
their dues" by consistent performances before they are rewarded by the judges in
major meets. Disputes over judging are not uncommon; most recently, the pairs
competition at the 2002 Olympic Winter Games ended in controversy when a judge
from France admitted to being pressured by her federation to "fix" the results
of the event. Rather than addressing problems of judging corruption and
incompetence at their source, the International Skating Union has added to the
controversy by introducing secrecy to limit the public accountability of judges
for their decisions.
Professional competitions in figure skating are not governed by any central
organization or common set of rules. Individual promoters of these events tend
to choose formats and rules that are designed to showcase the talents of the
specific skaters they have invited to participate, and which may vary wildly
from one event to another.
The Ice Skating Institute (ISI), an international ice rink trade
organization, runs its own competitive and test program aimed at recreational
skaters. Originally headquartered in Minnesota, the organization now operates
out of Dallas, Texas. There are 10 geographic districts within the USA. ISI
competitions are open to any member that have registered their tests. There are
very few "qualifying" competitions, although some districts hold "Gold
Competitions" for that season's first-place winners. ISI competitions are
especially popular in Asian countries that do not have established ISU member
federations. The Gay Games have also included skating competitions for
same-gender pairs and dance couples under ISI sponsorship. Other figure skating
competitions for adults also attract participants from diverse cultures and
sexual orientations.
History
While people have been ice skating for centuries, figure skating in its
current form originated in the mid-19th century. The International Skating Union
was founded in 1892, and the first World Championship -- for men only -- was
held in 1896 and won by Gilbert Fuchs. In 1902, a woman, Madge Syers, entered
the competition for the first time, finishing second. The ISU quickly banned
women from competing against men, but established a separate competition for
"ladies" in 1906. Pairs skating was introduced at the 1908 World Championships,
when the title was won by Anna Hübler & Heinrich Burger. The first Olympic
figure skating competitions also took place in 1908.
On March 20, 1914 an international figure skating championship was held in
New Haven, Connecticut which was the ancestor of both the United States and
Canadian national championships. However, international competitions in figure
skating were interrupted by World War I.
In the 1920s and 1930s, figure skating was dominated by Sonja Henie, who
turned competitive success into a lucrative professional career as a movie star
and touring skater. Henie also set the fashion for female skaters to wear short
skirts and white boots. The top male skaters of this period included Gillis
Grafström and Karl Schäfer.
Skating competitions were again interrupted for several years by World War
II. After the war, with many European rinks in ruins, skaters from the United
States and Canada began to dominate international competitions and to introduce
technical innovations to the sport. Dick Button, 1948 and 1952 Olympic Champion,
was the first skater to perform the double axel and triple loop jumps, as well
as the flying camel spin.
The first World Championships in ice dancing were not held until 1952. In its
first years, ice dance was dominated by British skaters. The first World title
holders were Jean Westwood & Lawrence Demmy.
On February 15, 1961, the entire US figure skating team and their coaches
were killed in the crash of Sabena Flight 548 in Brussels, Belgium en route to
the World Championships in Prague. This tragedy sent the US skating program into
a period of rebuilding.
At the same time, the Soviet Union rose to become a dominant power in the
sport, especially in the disciplines of pairs skating and ice dancing. At every
Winter Olympics from 1964 until the present day, a Soviet or Russian pairs duo
has won gold, often considered the longest winning streak in modern sports
history. (In 2002, Russians Yelena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze shared gold
with Canadians Jamie Sale and David Pelletier, keeping the streak alive.)
Compulsory figures formerly accounted for up to 60% of the score in singles
figure skating, which meant that skaters who could build up a big lead in
figures could win competitions even if they were mediocre free skaters. As
television coverage of skating events became more important, so did free
skating. Beginning in 1968, the ISU began to progressively reduce the weight of
figures, and in 1973, the short program was introduced. With these changes, the
emphasis in competitive figure skating shifted to increasing athleticism in the
free skating. By the time figures were finally eliminated entirely from
competition in 1990, Midori Ito had landed the first triple axel by a woman, and
Kurt Browning the first quadruple jump by a man.
Television also played a role in removing the restrictive amateur status
rules that once governed the sport. In order to retain skaters who might
otherwise have given up their eligibility to participate in lucrative
professional events, in 1995 the ISU introduced prize money at its major
competitions, funded by revenues from selling the TV rights to those events.
Figure skating is a very popular part of the Winter Olympic Games, in which
the elegance of both the competitors and their movements attract many
spectators. Unsurprisingly, the best skaters show many of the same physical and
psychological attributes as gymnasts. Many of the best skaters currently come
from Russia, the United States, and Canada, which are traditional powers in the
sport.
| 2006 Winter Olympics
medal count |
| Pos |
Country |
Gold |
Silver |
Bronze |
Total |
| 1 |
Germany |
11 |
12 |
6 |
29 |
| 2 |
United States |
9 |
9 |
7 |
25 |
| 3 |
Austria |
9 |
7 |
7 |
23 |
| 4 |
Russia |
8 |
6 |
8 |
22 |
| 5 |
Canada |
7 |
10 |
7 |
24 |
| 6 |
Sweden |
7 |
2 |
5 |
14 |
| 7 |
Korea |
6 |
3 |
2 |
11 |
| 8 |
Switzerland |
5 |
4 |
5 |
14 |
| 9 |
Italy |
5 |
0 |
6 |
11 |
| 10 |
France |
3 |
2 |
4 |
9 |
| Netherlands |
3 |
2 |
4 |
9 |
| 12 |
Estonia |
3 |
0 |
0 |
3 |
| 13 |
Norway |
2 |
8 |
9 |
19 |
| 14 |
China |
2 |
4 |
5 |
11 |
| 15 |
Czech Republic |
1 |
2 |
1 |
4 |
| 16 |
Croatia |
1 |
2 |
0 |
3 |
| 17 |
Australia |
1 |
0 |
1 |
2 |
| 18 |
Japan |
1 |
0 |
0 |
1 |
| 19 |
Finland |
0 |
6 |
3 |
9 |
| 20 |
Poland |
0 |
1 |
1 |
2 |
| 21 |
Belarus |
0 |
1 |
0 |
1 |
| Bulgaria |
0 |
1 |
0 |
1 |
| Great Britain |
0 |
1 |
0 |
1 |
| Slovakia |
0 |
1 |
0 |
1 |
| 25 |
Ukraine |
0 |
0 |
2 |
2 |
| 26 |
Latvia |
0 |
0 |
1 |
1 |
| |
|
84 |
84 |
84 |
252 |
|
